The Rational Guide to Hinduism
The Lost schools of Thought in Hinduism and What They Mean.
Hinduism (or Sanatana Dharma1 if you're feeling fancy) is like a chameleon. It takes on a bunch of different colors, shapes and and sizes depending on who's practicing it. It forms a strange loop of interconnected ideas and practices, referencing one another, forming a unique world of faith that's hard to define
It’s also probably not what you think it is. Most people associate it with millions of gods. And idols. But it is much more. It's a buffet of beliefs, with options ranging from hedonism (all about pleasure) to dharma (duty and morals over everything else), from meditation to prayer, from theism (god exists) to atheism (god doesn’t exist) to pantheism (literally everything is god).
But why did some schools of thought get more popular? Why don’t we hear about atheistic Hindus anymore? We will answer these questions. But first, we need to understand what Hinduism is, in total.
Part I. The Ultimate Truth of Hinduism
Hinduism's got a bunch of philosophical systems and schools.
The “Traditional” schools in Part 1 follow the Vedas and Upanishads and are called Astika. We've got 6 big schools and 4 major sects (some would say cults) using ideas from these schools that we’ll cover below.
Then there are the "Non-Traditional" schools, or Nastika, including Charvakas, Ajivikas, Buddhism, and Jainism, mentioned in Part 3.
These ideas popped up (or at least got formalised) around 1500-500 BCE, after the Indus Valley Civilisation went bust. But they're probably older than that.
Heads up: Some "Hindus" think Nastika means atheism. This isn’t true. Even Astika schools can be atheistic2. Nastika just means they don’t believe in Vedas to be their core texts. Some Nastika schools (Charvaka) are atheistic, while others (Buddhism, Jainism) traditionally don’t comment on the whole god thing too much3.
1.1. The 6 Major Schools (And Why You Only Know One)
Hinduism's got 6 classic systems, the "Shad Darshanas."
They talk about metaphysics, knowledge, Truth, and ethics, but they all admire the Vedas, those ancient Hindu texts. They aim to understand reality and find a path to spiritual freedom (moksha) or self-realization.
The six systems are:
Vedanta: Founded by Sage Vyasa (who also composed the Mahabharata4), this influential school focuses on the Upanishads, the deep philosophical bits of the Vedas. These texts are also called Vedanta, which means the end of the Vedas, which is what the Upanishads are. It has sub-schools like Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism), Vishista-Advaita Vedanta (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita Vedanta (dualism). If you're Hindu, you're probably into Vedanta, and maybe just a slice of it.
Mimamsa: Sage Jaimini's brainchild, it's all about Vedic rituals and duties (karma) for worldly gains and liberation. It focuses on how rituals, sacrifices, and observances matter in deity worship and life goals (think dharma, artha, kama, and moksha).
Samkhya: Sage Kapila's dualistic philosophy based on atheism, from around 600 BCE. It focuses on the difference between the Purusha (consciousness) from Prakriti (matter) and aims for spiritual freedom through understanding this distinction as the Ultimate Reality. No deity worship or belief in traditional God-like humans here (sorry Krishna).
Yoga: Sage Patanjali's Yoga is like Samkhya's sibling but focuses on practical methods for spiritual freedom through meditation and ethical discipline. The Yoga Sutras lay out the eightfold path (Ashtanga Yoga) for enlightenment. You might have seen it influence the West in the form of stretching exercises. If it helped some of them get enlightened quicker, why not?
Nyaya: Sage Gautama's logical system is all about getting valid knowledge. It's big on logical reasoning and systematically analysing reality. This school considers perception, inference, comparison/analogy, and testimony from reliable sources as four means to correct knowledge, holding that perception is the ultimate source of such knowledge5.
Vaisheshika: Sage Kanada's atomistic, pluralistic philosophy says the universe is made of eternal atoms (paramanus). It's got a scientific vibe and hangs out with the Nyaya school in logic and epistemology.
1.2. Major Sects and Traditions — Or Where do Gods and Idol Worship Come From?
Traditional Hinduism has more than just the six classical philosophies we've talked about. There are also fun subcultures like Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Smartism, and Shaktism, where people worship gods like Vishnu, Shiva, and goddesses. These traditions are like remixes of the classical ones, with idol worship for an extra personal connection.
Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu): Vaishnavism is all about Vishnu and his cool alter egos (avatars) like Rama and Krishna. Vaishnavites believe that Vishnu is the supreme reality and that devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu is the path to spiritual liberation (moksha).
Shaivism (worship of Shiva): Shiva’s the main man here. In Shaivism, various paths can lead to spiritual liberation, including devotion (bhakti), meditation, and the practice of yoga.
Smartism (worship of multiple deities): This is for those who can't pick a favourite god, so they worship multiple deities. Smartism is often associated with Advaita Vedanta, as it emphasises the non-dual nature of reality and the unity of the self (Atman) and Brahman.
Shaktism (worship of goddesses): Shaktism is for goddess fans, celebrating girl power through divine feminine energy (like Durga, Kali, Saraswati, Laxmi).
All of these are influenced by and take inspiration from different parts of the 6 schools of Hinduism. Eg: The eightfold path of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga) can be adapted to suit the specific goals and beliefs of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Smartism, and Shaktism, promoting physical, mental, and spiritual well-being.
You might wonder if these “Gods” were real people or inspired by them. The answer is a bit of both.
Gods often were given human-like qualities and forms to make them more relatable and accessible, helping folks connect personally with their chosen deity.
Brahma, in many ways, is another word for the Universe. Brahma's creation represents the universe's birth. This abstract idea likely led to human-like characters and stories to make it more understandable to people.
Some, like Krishna, were probably real people6 that were so enlightened that they earned deity status. Others, like Shiva, might have been inspired by ultra-wise yogis (maybe the "Adiyogi" or one of the first Yogis) who had insights about ultimate reality.
Since language becomes inadequate in conveying the enlightenment experience (somewhat psychedelic), the sages in the Upanishads resorted to myth and symbol to convey their intuitions and sometimes neti-neti (negation principles, mentioned in 4.2).
Hinduism has a thing for turning enlightened folks into gods – just check out those TV gurus!
II. How Deity Worship Grew
Now why did this Vedanta and Mimasa traditions take over the other schools in popularity? For this to make sense, we need to understand the Bhakti Movement, Growth Hacking (read atomic networks) and a guy named Adi Shankaracharya.
2.1. The Bhakti Movement and the Birth of “Modern Hinduism” via Growth Hacking
The Bhakti Movement, lasting from the 7th to 17th centuries7, aimed to create a personal, emotional connection to the divine through devotion (bhakti) and the practice of singing hymns, prayers, and poetry8.
It was highly successful in spreading its message and gaining followers. It used "growth hacking" techniques, such as:
Inclusivity: Open to everyone, regardless of caste or status, it broke down social barriers.
Vernacular languages: Using regional languages instead of Sanskrit made teachings more accessible.
Emotional appeal: Focusing on heartfelt relationships with God resonated with many people, through devotion and love.
Iconic leaders: Charismatic figures like Kabir, Meera Bai, and Tulsidas (maybe even George Harrison) inspired followers.
Integration of local traditions and customs: Adapting to local traditions, myths, and legends into its teachings, made it easier for people to relate to and accept the ideas being presented. Leveraging a kind of familiarity bias.
Simplicity of practice: Singing and chanting made it easy to adopt. It did not require extensive knowledge of scriptures or rituals.
Community-building: It fostered a sense of belonging attracted more followers, who would gather to sing, pray, and share their experiences. This sense of belonging and shared purpose helped to strengthen the movement and attract new adherents.
2.2. What’s with this Adi Shankaracharya guy?
Adi Shankaracharya, the 8th-century philosopher and founder of the Advaita Vedanta school, played a significant role in reviving and reforming Hinduism. He knew not everyone could grasp his Advaita Vedanta9 philosophy right away, so he saw the value in devotional practices (Bhakti) as stepping stones to self-realization.
Picture him saying, "You might not be ready for this all deep abstract stuff yet, so keep worshiping those deities to build your focus and devotion."
He understood that for many people, worshiping deities can serve as an essential means to cultivate devotion, discipline, and focus, which can ultimately lead them towards the path of self-realization.
Shankaracharya set up four monastic centres in India, each dedicated to a different deity, to teach his philosophy and preserve knowledge. He also revitalised temples and pilgrimage sites to encourage spiritual growth.
His approach was practical, simple and accessible for most. Like a good Math teacher, he tried to make sure no one slacks, knowing well the ultimate truth and understanding will only be attained by those who really try.
2.3. How Hinduism Competes — “If you can’t beat ‘em, join ‘em”
Hinduism has a knack for adapting and bouncing back, growing and staying strong despite new religions and belief systems. Its strategy is like "if you can't beat 'em, join 'em."
Two examples:
Buddhism: Born in India around the 5th century BCE, Buddhism, based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, challenged Hindu practices like rituals and the caste system by inventing his own meditation technique of Vipassana. Hinduism fought back with “love” by absorbing some Buddhist ideas and some even considering Buddha as an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. Thanks to our friend Adi Shankaracharya, Hinduism made a comeback, and Buddhism's influence in India faded.
Jainism: Jainism emerged around the 6th century BCE, advocating nonviolence, asceticism, and strict ethics. Hinduism and Jainism found a way to coexist, with Hinduism adopting some Jain ideas like ahimsa (nonviolence) and even revering some Jain figures, such as Mahavira.
III. Beyond the Vedas - More Atheism and the Lost Contrarians
Charvaka, Jains, Buddhists, and Tribal Religions are like the "Fab Four" of non-traditional belief systems within Hinduism. Some Hindus might not even consider this as part of Hinduism (hence non-traditional).
They remind us that Indian philosophy loves to mix things up and keep it interesting. We have already talked about Jainism and Buddhism in the competition part above. More on the other two:
Charvaka (hedonists): This quirky cousin of Hindu philosophy, doesn't fit in with the six classical systems. It's like the rebel at the family reunion, questioning everything and challenging traditions.
It fundamentally rejects the authority of the Vedas and the concept of an afterlife.
While other Hindu philosophies seek spiritual liberation, Charvaka says, "Let's party!" It's all about pleasure and enjoying the material world (or hedonism as Greeks would call it).
Ajivikas (kinda like Indian nihilism with morals and a lot of self-discipline): This is a long-lost Indian philosophy club from 6th century BCE. Their founder, Makkhali Gosala, hung out with big names like Mahavira and Buddha. They believed everything is predestined, so don't bother trying to change anything. Quite the opposite of Jainism and Buddhism really, which were all about personal responsibility10.
These guys loved extreme asceticism and nonviolence. They'd fast, meditate, and say no to worldly pleasures. Some even stood in awkward positions for ages or walked around naked to show how little they cared about stuff.
Ajivikas were quite the trend during the Mauryan Empire, but eventually, they lost their mojo.
Buddhism, Jainism, and a revived Hinduism stole the limelight, leaving Ajivikas and Charvakas forgotten. Now, only a few ancient texts and inscriptions remain as a memory of their once-thriving philosophy.
4. The Lost Culture of Debate and First Principles
4.1. The Lost Art of Open Debate and Disagreement
Hinduism's culture of debate (Shastrarth11) wasn't just for the classical systems. Hindu scholars also debated with heterodox schools like Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka, which questioned traditional Hindu ideas and practices. These dialogues sharpened everyone's intellectual skills, making ancient India a hotbed of vibrant and dynamic thinking.
Shastrartha is actually much more than a debate. It is a deeply sophisticated, rigorous and systematic process to mutually determine truth, while a debate is usually a battle, barely scientific of just trying to convince, even if other person might seem right.
It's tough to find modern examples of these debates. They used to happen in Sanskrit, giving them a sophisticated touch. They were well-documented, and the knowledge gained was called vada-vidya (literally: argument knowledge).
Here is closest thing I could find12. A debate (Shastrartha) between the Nyaya school and the Vishistha Advaita schools of Hinduism:
4.2. Vedic Thinking is the original First Principles Thinking.
The culture of first principles and debate is evident in Hindu texts like the Upanishads, which feature dialogues between teachers and students delving into deep metaphysical questions. The Bhagavad Gita, a key Hindu text, presents a conversation between Prince Arjuna and the god Krishna, discussing reality, duty, and the path to self-realization.
The Vedas recommend using the "neti neti" method13, meaning "not this, not that." It's like playing a game of 20 questions, where you try to guess the answer by the process of elimination. Vedas wanted you to guess the answer of ultimate truth or reality by rejecting everything that is not it.
The Vedas have always been about questioning assumptions and beliefs, arriving at one's own conclusions based on evidence and reasoning. But nowadays, it seems like modern Hindus are just ticking off boxes, praying for 5 minutes, skipping non-veg on one day a week, and reading a small book about it. It's more bookish knowledge than experiential knowledge, which goes against the very purpose that Shankaracharya had in mind. Maybe he knew this would happen. Hey, maybe it still helps. Let me know if it does.
The point here was not to show one school of thought being right over another but that there are many of them and they can all be right to some extent. Don’t let survivorship bias distract you. A state of Enlightenment might not care which path you took to get to it. If none of these sound appealing, the try Abrahamic religions. Or better yet, reject them all, and party like the Charvakas would. Maybe they got something right?
5. Appendix
5.1. Some Timelines
Between 200 BCE and 500 CE, the Epic and Early Puranic period brought forth the Epics and the first Purānas - a fascinating time for Hinduism. But the real magic began with the "Golden Age" of Hinduism (c. 320-650 CE), when the Gupta Empire was in full bloom. Six branches of Hindu philosophy blossoming like never before - Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta. Then Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism sprung to life, fueled by the Bhakti movement. Then came the late Classical period (roughly 650 to 1100 CE), which some might call the early Middle Ages. This was when classical Puranic Hinduism got its groove on and Adi Shankara made waves with his groundbreaking consolidation of Advaita Vedanta14.
5.2. The Vedas
The Vedas are the OG texts of Hinduism, considered the most sacred and ancient. They were supposedly revealed to ancient sages by the gods and passed down through the generations. There are four Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda.
Rigveda: The oldest and most important of the Vedas, it consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas) dedicated to various deities, including Soma (a sacred ritual drink which some think was magic mushrooms).
Samaveda: It’s a collection of Rigveda and other verses to be sung during rituals.
Yajurveda: It has formulas for rituals and sacrifices. Providing lots of administrative details around it.
Atharvaveda: This has hymns, incantations, and spells for healing, protection, and other purposes.
5.3. Upanishads
The Upanishads are the later part of the Vedas and are considered the philosophical and spiritual core of Hinduism. The term "Upanishad" (उपनिषद्) is often translated as "sitting down near" or "sitting close to." This term reflects the traditional method of receiving spiritual teachings in ancient India, where students would sit near their teacher (guru) to learn the sacred knowledge and wisdom.
Isha Upanishad emphasises renunciation and detachment from the material world, while the
Kena Upanishad explores the divine knowledge and relationship between the individual and the divine.
Katha Upanishad has a conversation between a young seeker and the god of death.
Prashna Upanishad has a series of Q&As between a sage and his students.
Mundaka Upanishad emphasises spiritual knowledge and meditation.
Mandukya Upanishad delves into consciousness through the sacred syllable "Om."
Taittiriya Upanishad focuses on the path to self-realization.
Aitareya Upanishad explores the creation of the universe.
Chandogya Upanishad has dialogues on the nature of the self, Brahman, and the universe.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is one of the oldest and largest, discussing the ultimate purpose of human existence.
Shvetashvatara Upanishad takes a theistic approach, discussing the attributes of God and the role of devotion in spiritual liberation.
Kaushitaki Upanishad explores the nature of the self, death, and the afterlife
Maitri Upanishad discusses the relationship between the self, the mind, and the senses.
A hymn from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad:
"It is like this. As a man embraced by a woman he loves is oblivious to everything within or without, so this person embraced by the prajna (conscious, aware, self) consisting of knowledge is oblivious to everything within or without. Clearly, this is the aspect of his where all desires are fulfilled, where the self is the only desire, and which is free from desires and far from sorrows.
Here a father is not a father, a mother is not a mother, worlds are not worlds, gods are not gods, and Vedas are not Vedas.
Here a thief is not a thief, an murderer is not an murderer, an outsider is not an outsider, a pariah is not a pariah, a recluse is not a recluse, and an ascetic is not an ascetic.
Neither the good nor the bad follows him, for he has now passed beyond all sorrows of the heart.
(...)
So did Yajnavalkya instruct him.
"This is his highest goal!
This is his highest attainment!
This is his highest world!
This is his highest bliss!
On just a fraction of this bliss do other creatures live.— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 4, Brahmanam 3, Hymns 20-32, Translated by Patrick Olivelle[39]
P.S. If you liked this post, you will probably also like the Indian Philosophy Substack by Adit Gupta.
6. References & Footnotes
Book recommendation: The Roots of Vedānta: Selections from Śaṅkara’s Writings. Edited by Sudhakshina Rangaswami, Penguin Books, 2012.
Hinduism is sometimes called "a way of life" instead of a religion. Sanatana Dharma is a more traditional term for it. The term "Hinduism" came from the Persian word "Hindu" which referred to people living beyond the river Sindhu (Indus), and was adopted by India’s colonial powers.
Flood, Gavin. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
A lot of these Astika and Nastika schools have a rooting in the Sramana mindset, but this deserves an article of its own.
The Mahabharata is an epic intertwining history, mythology, and philosophy, making it difficult to discern fact from fiction. Some experts believe a real war (c. 1100-500 BCE) may have inspired the core story, while others argue it's a work of fiction or moral allegory. The Mahabharata likely combines historical events, mythology, and cultural memory, evolving over time through generations of storytellers. Vyasa, traditionally credited as the original author, likely compiled and expanded upon pre-existing narratives from oral tradition or earlier Vedic texts. The Mahabharata we know today incorporates new elements, episodes, characters, and regional influences, including expanded content on the Bhagavad Gita and divine descriptions.
Grimes, John A. A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. New and rev. Ed, State University of New York Press, 1996.
Look at the work of Dr. S.R. Rao on archeological evidence on Dwarka, dating it to likely be a bustling city back in the late Harappan period (circa 1900-1700 BCE). There are several ancient inscriptions found in India that mention Krishna or his attributes. One example is the Heliodorus Pillar inscription (circa 2nd century BCE) in Vidisha, central India. The inscription mentions that Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador, erected the pillar in honor of Vasudeva, the god of the Vrishni clan. Vasudeva is an epithet often used to refer to Krishna. The evidence of Krishna being a real person is circumstantial and speculative. Or at most indirect. Still inconclusive by the standards of Science.
The Bhakti Movement probably started from South India, by Alvaras and Nayanars. Alvaras are the devotees of Vishnu and Nayanars are devotees of Shiva. These devotees travelled to various places singing hymns in praise of their Gods. Many temples were built that became sacred places of pilgrimage.
Pande, Rekha. (2000). The Bhakti Movement- A historiographical Critique, Journal of Historical Research, Volume X. 49-60.
The idea that ultimate reality is Brahman/universe, which is identical to the individual self/Atman
Some Ajivikas believed in absolute agnosticism, and refused to have any opinion either way about existence of or non-existence of after-life, karma, good, evil, free will, creator, soul, or other topics.
Shastrartha (Shastra + Artha) might be a double entendre meaning both “scripture meaning” as well as “weapon/battle of meaning” since shastra has 2 meanings.
This debate probably still is very different from how they used to happen in ancient India. It’s meant to mutually arrive at Truth and this feels more like a modern argument-focused debate (even attacking and defending your ego).
In summary, while the Vedas and Upanishads do employ methods like "neti neti" and first principles in some contexts, the development of ideas like heaven and Atman is more complex, arising from a combination of religious beliefs, mythological narratives, introspection, and spiritual insight.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Hinduism